Health behaviours, for instance, smoking, alcohol consumption and physical inactivity, are associated with long working hours.
Apart from when working long hours, the results about the effect of long work hours to depression and anxiety are not entirely clear. Further, it has been reported that female workers have a higher risk of experiencing depression and anxiety than male workers when working the same number of hours. By contrast, other studies have found that working 41 to 55 h per week and 41 to 52 h per week was associated with a decreased risk of suffering from depression and anxiety compared with those working less than 41 h per week. investigated the effects of long working hours on depression symptoms for Japanese residents and found that compared with the residents working less than 60 h per week, those working 80 to 99.9 h per week and more than 99.9 h per week had a 2.83 and 6.96, respectively, greater risk of experiencing depression. Working more than 34 h per week, 55 h per week, and 48 h per week increased the chance of experiencing depression and anxiety. Several studies have found an association between depression and long working hours. The results for working hours and cardiovascular and cerebrovascular diseases are not entirely agreed yet. , the risk ratios of the effect of long working hours on coronary heart disease and stroke were 1.13 and 1.33, respectively. had reported the effect of long working hours on coronary heart disease with a relative risk of 1.39. Another meta-analysis conducted by Virtanen et al. indicated that the odds ratio of the effect of long working hours on cardiovascular diseases was 1.37. However, some findings differ from such results in that working more than 50 h per week decreased the risk of ischemic heart diseases and myocardial infarction. Researchers also found that workers in Europe, Japan, Korea, and China who work more than 50 h per week had an increased risk of cerebrocardiovascular diseases, myocardial infarction, and coronary heart disease. Those working less than 7 h per day or more than 11 h per day were at greater risk of experiencing myocardial infarction than with those working 7 to 11 h.
A U-shaped relationship between the risk of suffering from myocardial infarction and working hours for Japanese workers was found. Many studies have investigated the effects of different working hours on the occurrence of cardiovascular and cerebrovascular diseases. Cardiovascular and Cerebrovascular Diseases Similar results have been found for long working hours by other studies, for instance, myocardial infarction, poor physical health and injuries, alcohol consumption, smoking, physical inactivity, and depression.
Epidemiological studies have shown the negative effects of long working hours on the risks of cardiovascular diseases chronic fatigue, stress depressive state, anxiety, sleep quality, all-cause mortality, alcohol use and smoking and self-perceived health, mental health status, hypertension, and health behaviours. Long working hours are a ubiquitous phenomenon amongst most organisations and companies where the length of time spending on work, comprising main tasks of job, related tasks, commuting, and travel, is too long and detrimental to the health of workers directly or indirectly. Such studies are necessary in order to maintain the quality of work and working environments and to develop a society which ultimately achieves sustainable development. The study of factors affecting occupational health is important to safeguard employees through control of occupational diseases and accidents and to eliminate hazards that threaten the health of workers. The management on safeguarding the occupational health of workers working long hours should be reinforced. Long working hours were shown to adversely affect the occupational health of workers. The potential moderators were study method, cut-point for long weekly working hours, and country of origin. The condition of related health constituted the highest odds ratio value (1.465, 95% CI: 1.332–1.611). The overall odds ratio between long working hours and occupational health was 1.245 (95% confidence interval (CI): 1.195–1.298). The effects were measured by five conditions, namely, physiological health (PH), mental health (MH), health behaviours (HB), related health (RH), and nonspecified health (NH). A total of 243 published records were extracted from electronic databases. Therefore, this paper aims to conduct a meta-analysis covering studies after 1997 for a comparison. There has been no subsequent meta-analysis examining the effects of long working hours on health or occupational health since 1997.
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